In this comprehensive set of 1st Year Biology Unit No. 8 notes, we delve into the intricate world of fungi, uncovering their unique characteristics, life cycles, ecological significance, and interactions with other living beings. From the smallest molds to the towering mushrooms, these notes will illuminate the often-overlooked but indispensable contributions of fungi to our natural world, offering a deeper understanding of their biology and the impact they have on the environment and human society.
Unit 8 Biology of 1st Year Short Answers Questions
How many species of organisms are known to belong to the group of “fungi”?
Approximately 100,000 species of organisms are known to belong to the group of “fungi.”
What are some examples of notorious pathogens within the fungi group?
Notable pathogens within the fungi group include rusts, smuts, and molds that affect crops and foodstuffs.
Which organisms of commercial use are part of the fungi group?
Organisms like Penicillium (source of penicillin), yeasts (used in bakeries and breweries), mushrooms, truffles, and morels are part of the fungi group.
- 1st Year Biology Unit No.1 Introduction Notes
- 1st Year Biology Unit No. 2 Biological Molecules Notes
- 1st Year Biology Unit No. 3 Enzymes Notes
- 1st Year Biology Unit No. 4 The Cell Notes
- 1st Year Biology Unit No. 5 Variety of Life Notes
How does the ecological role of fungi compare to bacteria?
The ecological role of fungi as decomposers is paralleled only by bacteria.
How has the taxonomic status of fungi changed over time?
The taxonomic status of fungi has changed from being considered a part of the Plant kingdom to being recognized as a separate kingdom called “Fungi.”
What features do fungi share with plants, and how do they resemble animals more?
Fungi have cell walls like plants, but they lack cellulose and contain chitin, similar to the external skeletons of arthropods, making them resemble animals more.
What unique characteristic of mitosis is observed in fungi?
Fungi exhibit a characteristic type of mitosis called ‘nuclear mitosis,’ where the nuclear envelope does not break, and the mitotic spindle forms within the nucleus.
How do fungi differ from animals in terms of cell wall and feeding habits?
Fungi have a cell wall and are absorptive heterotrophs, while animals lack cell walls and are typically ingestive heterotrophs.
Why are fungi assigned to a separate kingdom despite their similarities to plants and animals?
Fungi are assigned to a separate kingdom because they exhibit distinct characteristics from plants, animals, and protists.
How do DNA studies support the distinction of fungi from other organisms?
DNA studies confirm that fungi are different from all other organisms, reinforcing their unique taxonomic position.
What are the slender thread-like filaments in a fungus called?
The slender thread-like filaments in a fungus are called hyphae.
How does chitin in fungal cell walls compare to cellulose and lignin in plant cell walls?
Chitin in fungal cell walls is more resistant to decay than cellulose and lignin in plant cell walls.
What is the difference between septate and non-septate hyphae?
Septate hyphae have cross-walls called septa that divide them into individual cells, while non-septate hyphae lack such divisions.
How does cytoplasm move in coenocytic hyphae?
In coenocytic hyphae, cytoplasm moves effectively, distributing materials throughout the elongated multinucleated cell.
What is the role of pores in the septa of many septate fungi?
Pores in the septa of septate fungi allow cytoplasm to flow from cell to cell, aiding rapid growth when conditions are favorable.
What advantage does the extensive spreading system of hyphae provide?
The extensive spreading system of hyphae provides a large surface area for absorption.
How do fungi like mushrooms and puffballs arise from hyphae?
Fungi like mushrooms and puffballs arise from the organization of hyphae into complex reproductive structures.
Are yeast hyphal or non-hyphal organisms?
Yeast are non-hyphal unicellular fungi.
What is the typical ploidy level of fungal nuclei?
All fungal nuclei are haploid, except for the transient diploid zygote formed during sexual reproduction.
What is the primary mode of obtaining food for fungi?
Fungi obtain their food through direct absorption from the environment.
What is the main nutritional source for most fungi?
Most fungi are saprotrophs that obtain nutrients from dead organic matter.
How do saprobic fungi digest their food?
They secrete digestive enzymes to break down dead organic matter, absorbing the resulting organic molecules.
How much new hyphae can a single mycelium produce in a day?
A single mycelium can produce up to a kilometer of new hyphae in one day.
What are the principal decomposers of cellulose and lignin in plant cell walls?
Fungi are the principal decomposers of cellulose and lignin.
How do parasitic fungi obtain nutrients from their hosts?
Parasitic fungi absorb nutrients from living hosts through special hyphal tips called haustoria.
What is an example of a predatory fungus and how does it obtain nutrients?
The oyster mushroom is a predatory fungus that absorbs nutrients by paralyzing and consuming nematodes.
What are two key mutualistic associations involving fungi?
Lichens and mycorrhizae are two mutualistic associations involving fungi.
What are lichens composed of and how do they benefit each other?
Lichens consist of fungi and either green algae or cyanobacteria; the fungus provides protection while receiving nutrients from the algal partner.
Why are lichens important ecologically?
Lichens serve as bioindicators of air pollution and can thrive in challenging environments where individual components would struggle to survive.
What are mycorrhizae and how do they benefit plants?
Mycorrhizae are mutualistic associations between certain fungi and the roots of vascular plants. Fungal hyphae increase soil contact for nutrient absorption, aiding in the direct uptake of phosphorus, zinc, copper, and other nutrients. This association promotes better plant growth.
What are the two main types of mycorrhizae and how do they differ?
The two main types of mycorrhizae are endomycorrhizae and ectomycorrhizae. Endomycorrhizae penetrate plant root cells, forming coils and swellings, while ectomycorrhizae surround root cells without penetrating the cell walls. Ectomycorrhizae are commonly found in pines and similar plants.
How do fungi survive in different environments?
Fungi thrive in moist habitats but can survive dry conditions through resting stages or resistant spore production. They tolerate a wide pH range, temperature variations, and high osmotic pressure. These adaptations aid their survival on land.
What is the role of spores in fungal reproduction?
Spores are a common means of reproduction in fungi. They can be produced through sexual or asexual processes, are non-motile, and do not require water for dispersal. They are produced in large numbers, are often wind-dispersed, and contribute to the wide distribution of various fungi, including plant pathogens.
What is the common factor in sexual reproduction among different groups of fungi?
Fusion of haploid nuclei and meiosis are common to all groups of fungi during sexual reproduction.
What happens when hyphae of two genetically different but compatible mating types come together in fungi?
Their cytoplasm fuses followed by nuclear fusion.
What is a dikaryotic hypha/cell in fungi?
It’s a fungal hypha or cell containing two nuclei of different genetic types, resulting from the coexistence and division of haploid nuclei from two individuals.
How do different groups of fungi produce haploid sexual spores?
They produce haploid sexual spores such as basidiospores and ascospores through meiosis in the zygote.
What is the primary basis for the classification of fungi into different groups?
The classification of fungi into different groups is primarily based on the type of their sexual reproductive structures and methods of reproduction.
What is the distinctive feature of sexual reproduction in Basidiomycota (club fungi)?
Basidiomycota produce basidiospores on club-shaped basidia as part of their sexual reproduction.
Which group of fungi has a sexual phase that has not been observed?
Deuteromycota (Imperfect fungi) have not been observed in their sexual phase.
How do Zygomycota reproduce sexually?
In Zygomycota, a zygote is formed directly by the fusion of hyphae, resulting in the formation of a temporary, thick-walled resistant structure called a zygospore.
What characterizes the sexual reproduction of Rhizopus, a Zygomycete?
Rhizopus forms a zygospore through the fusion of hyphae, followed by meiosis and the production of haploid spores upon germination.
How do Ascomycota reproduce asexually?
Ascomycota reproduce asexually by producing conidia that are cut off from the tips of conidiophores.
What is the largest group of fungi, comprising over 60,000 species?
The largest group of fungi is Ascomycota, which includes over 60,000 species.
How do most sac-fungi reproduce sexually and what is the name of the structure where this occurs?
Most sac-fungi reproduce sexually by producing haploid ascospores through meiosis inside sac-like structures called asci.
What is the name of the microscopic unicellular fungi that reproduce mostly by budding?
Yeasts are the name of the unicellular microscopic fungi that reproduce mostly by budding.
What is the main distinguishing reproductive structure of Basidiomycota, and how many basidiospores are produced on each?
The main reproductive structure of Basidiomycota is the basidium, which produces four haploid basidiospores each.
Why are rust fungi and smut fungi named as such?
Rust fungi are named for the rusty, orange-yellow colored spots they create on host surfaces, while smut fungi are named for their black, dusty spore masses that resemble soot or smut.
How are teliospores of Ustilago tritici (loose smut of wheat) spread to healthy wheat flowers?
Teliospores are carried by wind from infected wheat ears to healthy flowers.
What do the hyphae resulting from the germination of teliospores do?
The hyphae penetrate lower ovaries of healthy flowers.
Where does the mycelium of Ustilago tritici become dormant and spread inside the plant?
The mycelium becomes dormant and spreads inside the ovary of the infected seed (grain).
How does Ustilago tritici destroy the wheat kernels when infected seeds are sown?
The hyphae grow within the growing plant, forming smut spores inside the kernel, destroying them.
How are the smut spores of Ustilago tritici dispersed?
The black spore mass is exposed when the grain covering breaks, and wind disperses the spores.
What is the term for the group of fungi in which sexual reproduction has not been observed?
Deuteromycota (Deuteromycetes or Imperfect Fungi).
How are Penicillium conidia arranged, and where are they found?
Penicillium conidia are arranged in chains at the tips of special hyphae called conidiophores, which are branched.
What is the special genetic recombination process observed in imperfect fungi?
Parasexuality, where portions of chromosomes are exchanged between nuclei in the same hypha.
What adaptations do fungi have for living on land?
They possess an extensive system of hyphae for absorption, chitin in their hyphal walls, and modified hyphae like rhizoids for anchoring and digestion.
How do fungi reproduce themselves without dependence on external water?
Some hyphae are modified to enable self-reproduction without relying on external water.
Why can molds like Penicillium grow on oranges in refrigerators?
Molds are more tolerant of temperature extremes and can grow at lower temperatures, unlike many bacteria.
What is the ecological importance of fungi?
Fungi play roles as decomposers and symbionts, aiding in nutrient recycling.
They prevent essential nutrients from being locked in dead matter, supporting life.
Mycorrhizal fungi enhance plant growth, benefiting 95% of vascular plants.
How do lichens contribute to ecological processes?
Lichens growing on rocks initiate ecological succession by breaking down rocks.
They serve as bioindicators of air quality due to their sensitivity to pollution.
Lichens play a role in setting the stage for other organisms in ecosystems.
What are the commercial uses of fungi?
Edible fungi like mushrooms are used in food and delicacies.
Yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) are employed in bread and liquor production.
Fungi like Penicillium species contribute flavor, aroma, and color to cheese.
How are fungi utilized in medicine and research?
Penicillin, derived from Penicillium notatum, was the first antibiotic discovered.
Some fungi produce drugs like Lovastatin and cyclosporine used in medical treatments.
Yeasts are essential for genetic and molecular research due to rapid generation and genetics.
What is the significance of yeasts in research?
Yeasts are crucial for genetic and molecular studies due to rapid growth and genetic information.
They were the first eukaryotes used in genetic engineering and genome sequencing.
Yeasts are investigated for hormone production and have contributed to genetic research.
What makes fungi responsible for serious plant diseases, and what components of plants do they break down?
Fungi produce enzymes that break down cellulose, lignin, and cutin in plants, leading to diseases.
Rusts, smut diseases, and others like powdery mildews and apple scab cause extensive damage.
What are some examples of animal diseases caused by fungi, and what are their impacts?
Superficial fungal infections like ringworm and athlete’s foot are caused by imperfect fungi.
Candida albicans causes thrush, while Histoplasmosis affects the lungs and can be fatal in rare cases.
What are some animal diseases caused by fungi?
Ringworm and athlete’s foot are superficial fungal infections caused by imperfect fungi.
Candida albicans causes oral and vaginal thrush.
Histoplasmosis is a lung infection caused by inhaling fungal spores from contaminated soil.
Aspergillus fumigatus can cause aspergillosis in people with weak immune systems.
How do saprobic fungi cause damage?
Saprobic fungi decompose various materials like food, wood, fiber, and leather.
Fungal attacks lead to the loss of 15-50% of the world’s fruit annually.
Wood-rotting fungi destroy both living trees and structural timber.
Bracket/shelf fungi cause damage to stored lumber and trees.
What is ergotism and how is it caused?
Ergotism is caused by consuming bread made from ergot-contaminated rye flour.
The poisonous material in ergot leads to nervous spasms, convulsions, psychotic delusions, and gangrene.
Exercise Short Questions
(i) What is a hypha, and what is the advantage of having incomplete septa?
A hypha is a thread-like filament that constitutes the main body of a fungus.
Incomplete septa (cross-walls) in hyphae allow for the movement of cytoplasm and nutrients, enhancing the sharing of resources among fungal cells.
(ii) What is the composition of fungal cell wall, and how is this advantageous?
The fungal cell wall is primarily composed of chitin, a complex carbohydrate.
Chitin provides structural rigidity and protection against environmental stressors, contributing to the cell’s overall strength.
(iii) To which phyla do yeasts belong? How do they differ from other fungi?
Yeasts belong to the phyla Ascomycota and Basidiomycota.
Unlike other fungi, yeasts are unicellular and reproduce asexually by budding.
(iv) Name sexual and asexual spores of Ascomycetes.
Sexual spore: Ascospores
Asexual spore: Conidia
(v) What are mycorrhizae?
Mycorrhizae are mutualistic associations between fungi and plant roots.
The fungi help plants absorb nutrients like phosphorus and provide water, while plants supply the fungi with sugars produced through photosynthesis.
(vi) How are individuals in imperfect fungi classified?
Individuals in imperfect fungi are classified based on their observable characteristics and reproductive structures.
(vii) What characteristic differentiates Zygomycota from Basidiomycota?
Zygomycota reproduce sexually through zygospores, while Basidiomycota reproduce through basidiospores and are known for producing mushroom structures.
(viii) Why is green mold more likely to contaminate an orange in a refrigerator than bacteria?
Green mold is more likely to contaminate an orange in a refrigerator because fungi, like green mold, thrive in cool and damp environments, while bacteria are generally less active in colder conditions.
(ix) What is a fungus?
A fungus is a type of organism belonging to the kingdom Fungi, characterized by their ability to decompose organic matter and absorb nutrients from their surroundings.
(x) State two parallel characteristics of Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes.
Both Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes are classified as higher fungi.
Both groups produce sexual spores; Ascomycetes produce ascospores within sac-like structures called asci, and Basidiomycetes produce basidiospores on specialized structures called basidia.
Unit 8 Biology of 1st Year Long Answer Questions
Q. Discuss taxonomic status of fungi.
The taxonomic status of fungi is a complex and evolving field within biology. Fungi constitute a distinct kingdom in the domain Eukarya, separate from plants, animals, and protists. Traditionally, fungi were classified under the Plant Kingdom due to their immobility and cell wall composition, but modern understanding and advancements in molecular biology have led to their reclassification.
Fungi are now recognized as a unique kingdom due to several key characteristics:
Cell Wall Composition: Fungi have cell walls made of chitin, a complex carbohydrate, which differentiates them from plants that have cellulose-based cell walls.
Nutritional Mode: Fungi are heterotrophs, meaning they cannot produce their own food through photosynthesis like plants. They obtain nutrients by absorbing organic matter from their environment.
Reproduction: Fungi reproduce through spore formation. This can involve both sexual and asexual reproductive processes.
Genetic and Molecular Studies: Advances in genetic sequencing and molecular studies have revealed significant genetic differences between fungi and other organisms, supporting their separate classification.
Within the fungal kingdom, there are various phyla and classes based on morphological, ecological, and genetic characteristics. Major phyla include Ascomycota (sac fungi), Basidiomycota (club fungi), Zygomycota (conjugated fungi), and Glomeromycota (mycorrhizal fungi). These phyla contain a wide range of fungal forms, from single-celled yeasts to complex mushroom-forming species.
However, it’s important to note that fungal taxonomy is still a dynamic field, and ongoing research might lead to further refinements in the classification. Molecular techniques and genetic analysis continue to provide new insights into fungal relationships and diversity.
Q. Summarise diferentiating/distinguishing characteristics of four main groups of Fungi, and give two common examples of each group.
The four main groups of fungi can be differentiated based on their characteristics. Here’s a summary along with two common examples of each group:
Zygomycota
Characteristics: They have a simple structure, with non-septate hyphae (coenocytic) and sexual reproduction involving the formation of zygospores.
Examples: Rhizopus (common bread mold), Mucor (a saprophytic fungus).
Ascomycota
Characteristics: They possess sac-like structures called asci that contain spores, septate hyphae, and sexual reproduction involving the production of ascospores.
Examples: Saccharomyces cerevisiae (brewer’s yeast), Penicillium (used in cheese production).
Basidiomycota
Characteristics: They have complex reproductive structures called basidia that produce basidiospores, septate hyphae, and are often involved in the formation of mushrooms.
Examples: Agaricus bisporus (common mushroom), Puccinia graminis (wheat rust).
Deuteromycota (Fungi Imperfecti)
Characteristics: These are fungi with no known sexual reproduction stage, and their classification is based on their asexual spore-producing structures.
Examples: Trichophyton (causes athlete’s foot and ringworm), Alternaria (common allergenic mold).
Q. State various features of fungi that adapt them to terrestrial mode of life.
Fungi have several features that adapt them to a terrestrial mode of life. These features include:
- Cell Wall Composition: Fungi have cell walls made of chitin, a tough and flexible polysaccharide, which provides structural support and protection against mechanical stress.
- Heterotrophic Nutrition: Fungi are heterotrophic, meaning they obtain nutrients by absorbing organic matter from their surroundings. This mode of nutrition allows them to thrive in various terrestrial environments.
- Decomposers: Many fungi are saprophytic decomposers, breaking down dead organic matter and recycling nutrients back into the ecosystem. This role is crucial in nutrient cycling.
- Mycorrhizal Associations: Fungi form symbiotic relationships with plants through mycorrhizae, where they provide plants with nutrients like phosphorus and receive sugars in return. This mutualistic association enhances plant growth.
- Hyphal Growth: Fungi grow as hyphae, which are thread-like structures that allow them to efficiently explore and colonize their surroundings for nutrients.
- Spore Production: Fungi reproduce through spores, which are small, lightweight structures that can be easily dispersed by wind, water, or other organisms. This adaptation aids in their wide distribution.
- Asexual and Sexual Reproduction: Fungi exhibit both asexual and sexual reproduction, allowing them to adapt to changing environmental conditions and increase genetic diversity.
- Tolerance to Harsh Conditions: Fungi can tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions, including extremes of temperature, pH, and moisture. This adaptability contributes to their success in terrestrial habitats.
Q. What is ecological importance of saprotrophic fungi, of lichens and mycorrhizae?
Saprotrophic fungi play a crucial role in decomposition by breaking down dead organic matter.
They recycle nutrients back into the ecosystem, making them available for other organisms.
These fungi help maintain soil fertility and nutrient cycling in various ecosystems.
Without saprotrophic fungi, dead plant and animal material would accumulate, hindering nutrient flow.
Lichens are unique symbiotic organisms composed of fungi and photosynthetic partners (algae or cyanobacteria).
They can grow in harsh environments, aiding in soil formation and preventing erosion.
Lichens are early colonizers on bare rock, facilitating the process of primary succession.
Their sensitivity to air pollution makes them valuable indicators of environmental health.
Mycorrhizae are symbiotic associations between fungi and plant roots.
They enhance nutrient uptake (particularly phosphorus and nitrogen) for plants in exchange for sugars.
Mycorrhizal networks connect plants, facilitating nutrient and information exchange in a forest ecosystem.
These fungi contribute to plant growth, health, and ecosystem stability.
Saprotrophic fungi recycle nutrients from dead matter, enriching soils and supporting plant growth.
Lichens aid in soil formation, early succession, and serve as environmental indicators.
Mycorrhizae establish mutualistic relationships that enhance plant nutrient acquisition and ecosystem connectivity.
Together, these organisms contribute to nutrient cycling, ecosystem development, and overall ecological balance.
Q. Same enzymes of fungi are useful on one hand and harmful on other. Discuss.
The enzymes produced by fungi exhibit a dual nature, being both useful and harmful depending on their context. This duality arises from the diverse roles fungi play in various ecological and industrial processes.
Useful Aspects
Decomposition: Fungi are critical decomposers in ecosystems, breaking down dead organic matter like leaves, wood, and other plant material. The enzymes they secrete, such as cellulases and ligninases, help break down complex polymers like cellulose and lignin, making nutrients available for recycling in the ecosystem.
Bioremediation: Fungi can degrade pollutants, including various organic compounds, pesticides, and even petroleum products. Enzymes like peroxidases and laccases play a role in breaking down these contaminants, aiding in environmental cleanup.
Industrial Applications: Fungal enzymes are utilized in various industries, such as food processing, brewing, and textiles. For example, amylases and proteases are used in baking and brewing processes to convert starches and proteins into useful products.
Pharmaceuticals: Fungi are sources of many antibiotics and other medicinal compounds. Enzymes produced by fungi are used in the production of these pharmaceuticals.
Harmful Aspects
Plant Pathogens: Fungi can cause devastating plant diseases by producing enzymes that degrade plant cell walls. Cellulases, pectinases, and other enzymes break down the structural integrity of plants, leading to wilting, rotting, and reduced crop yields.
Food Spoilage: Fungi can spoil crops, stored grains, fruits, and vegetables. Enzymes break down these products, leading to spoilage, loss of nutritional value, and decreased marketability.
Human and Animal Infections: Fungi can cause infections in humans and animals. Enzymes like proteases and lipases facilitate tissue invasion and nutrient acquisition by pathogenic fungi, leading to infections like athlete’s foot, ringworm, and more serious diseases in immunocompromised individuals.
Destruction of Materials: Fungi can damage materials like wood, leather, and textiles, as enzymes break down these materials over time, leading to structural weakening and deterioration.
In essence, the same enzymes produced by fungi serve both beneficial and detrimental purposes in the natural world and human activities. Harnessing their positive attributes while managing and mitigating their negative impacts is a challenge faced by various fields, including agriculture, industry, and medicine.
Q. Name any four important fungal diseases of plants and four fungal diseases of humans, and briely describe any one of the plant diseases and any one of the diseases of humans.
Four Important Fungal Diseases of Plants
- Rust diseases
- Smut diseases
- Powdery mildews
- Apple scab
Four Fungal Diseases of Humans
- Ringworm
- Athlete’s foot
- Candidiasis (thrush)
- Aspergillosis
Description of a Plant Disease – Rust Diseases
Rust diseases are a group of fungal infections affecting plants, caused by various species of rust fungi. These fungi produce distinctive reddish-brown spore masses on the surface of infected plant parts, resembling rust. These diseases can impact a wide range of crops, including wheat, corn, and rice. Rust infections lead to yellowing of leaves, reduced photosynthesis, and can ultimately result in yield losses. For instance, stem rust in wheat can cause significant crop damage, affecting food security.
Description of a Human Disease – Ringworm
Ringworm, medically known as dermatophytosis, is a common fungal infection of the skin, hair, or nails. It is caused by different species of fungi known as dermatophytes. Despite its name, ringworm is not caused by worms but rather by these fungal organisms. It appears as red, circular, and itchy patches on the skin, often with a raised, scaly border. Ringworm is highly contagious and can spread through direct contact with infected people, animals, or contaminated objects. It commonly affects areas like the scalp, body, feet (athlete’s foot), and groin (jock itch). Proper hygiene and antifungal treatments are essential for managing and preventing the spread of ringworm.
Q. Describe, giving examples, diferent ways in which fungi are useful to humans.
Fungi play a crucial role in benefiting humans through various ways. Here are some examples of how fungi are useful:
Food Production and Fermentation: Fungi are used in the production of many food items. Yeast, a type of fungus, is essential for bread-making and fermentation in the production of alcoholic beverages like beer and wine. Some fungi like mushrooms are directly consumed as nutritious food sources.
Medicine Production: Fungi have contributed significantly to the field of medicine. Penicillin, the first antibiotic, was derived from the fungus Penicillium. Fungi are also used to produce other antibiotics, immunosuppressants, and drugs to treat conditions like cholesterol and hypertension.
Biological Pest Control: Certain fungi act as natural biopesticides, helping in controlling insect pests that damage crops. For example, the fungus Beauveria bassiana infects and kills insects like aphids and whiteflies, reducing the need for chemical pesticides.
Environmental Recycling: Saprobic fungi are vital decomposers in ecosystems, breaking down dead organic matter like leaves, wood, and plant debris. This decomposition process helps recycle nutrients back into the soil, enriching it for plant growth.
Bioremediation: Fungi can remove or detoxify pollutants from the environment. They are used in bioremediation projects to clean up soil and water contaminated with hazardous substances, such as oil spills or industrial waste.
Industrial Enzyme Production: Fungi are rich sources of enzymes that find various industrial applications. Cellulases, amylases, and proteases produced by fungi are used in industries like textile, detergent, and paper manufacturing.
Biological Research: Fungi are valuable model organisms in scientific research. The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is extensively studied due to its genetic and cellular similarities to human cells. This research aids in understanding human genetics and diseases.
Flavor Enhancers: Fungi like molds are used in the production of certain flavor enhancers, such as blue cheese and Roquefort, through controlled fermentation processes.
Biodegradable Packaging: Fungi can be used to create biodegradable materials for packaging and insulation, offering sustainable alternatives to traditional plastics.
Biofuel Production: Some fungi have the ability to break down complex plant materials into simpler sugars, which can then be converted into biofuels like ethanol, contributing to renewable energy sources.
Q. Differentiate between the members of each of the following pairs.
(a) Spore/Conidium
Spore: A general term for a reproductive structure capable of giving rise to a new organism. It can be a single-celled unit of asexual reproduction.
Conidium: A specific type of asexual spore produced by fungi, typically at the tip of specialized hyphae. Conidia are not enclosed within a sporangium.
(b) Ascus/Basidium
Ascus: A sac-like structure found in Ascomycota (sac fungi) that contains ascospores, which are sexual spores produced through meiosis.
Basidium: A club-shaped structure found in Basidiomycota (club fungi) that bears basidiospores, which are sexual spores produced through meiosis.
(c) Dikaryotic/Diploid
Dikaryotic: Refers to cells or hyphae that have two distinct nuclei, each from a different parent, without them fusing into a single nucleus.
Diploid: Refers to cells or organisms with two sets of chromosomes, one inherited from each parent. Diploid cells have paired chromosomes.
(d) Ascocarp/Ascus
Ascocarp: A fruiting body produced by Ascomycota fungi that contains or encloses the asci (sacs) where ascospores are produced.
Ascus: As mentioned before, a sac-like structure within the ascocarp that contains ascospores.
(e) Obligate Parasite/Facultative Parasite
Obligate Parasite: A parasite that can only survive and reproduce by exploiting a host organism. It’s entirely dependent on the host.
Facultative Parasite: An organism that can live independently but can also parasitize a host when the opportunity arises.
(f) Endomycorrhizae/Ectomycorrhizae
Endomycorrhizae: A type of mycorrhizal association where the fungal hyphae penetrate the plant root cells, forming structures called arbuscules within the cells.
Ectomycorrhizae: A type of mycorrhizal association where the fungal hyphae surround and envelope the plant root cells, forming a sheath-like structure around the root tips.
(g) Plasmogamy/Karyogamy
Plasmogamy: The fusion of two fungal cells’ cytoplasm, resulting in the formation of a heterokaryotic cell (containing two different nuclei).
Karyogamy: The fusion of nuclei within a cell, resulting in the formation of a diploid nucleus after the nuclei from the mating partners merge.